Utopia And Leviathan - 2186 Words

Thomas MoresUtopia and Thomas Hobbes Leviathan each offer alternatives to the worlds in which they lived.. Mores society, viewed through the character Hythloday, is seemingly based on mans nature in society being generally good, and the faults of man emanate from how society itself is set up. Hobbes takes the opposite view of human nature, where mans will to survive makes him unable to act out of goodness and it is man who is responsible for societys ills. Both Leviathan and Utopia contain faults in logic that work to undermine the very possibility for these new social structures. In the following I will show how each of their views for a new society give insight into what their beliefs of human nature are, while showing some†¦show more content†¦Close inspection of these rules give insight into how More may have really viewed human nature. In the following excerpts we find evidence that More may have found man untrustworthy and in need of social control, or at the very least spiritual control. The vast majority of Utopians  ¦ believe in a single power, unknown, eternal, infinite, inexplicable, far beyond the grasp of the human mind, and diffused throughout the universe, not physically but in influence. Him they call father, and to him alone they attribute the origin, increase, progress, change, and end of all visible things; they do not offer divine honors to any other.  ¦ (Utopus) left the whole matter (choosing a religion) open, allowing each person to choose what he would believe. The only exception was a positive and strict law against anyone who would sink so far below the dignity of human nature as to think that the soul perishes with the body, or that the universe is ruled by blind chance, not divine providence.  ¦ Therefore a man who holds such views is offered no honors, entrusted with no offices, and given no public responsibility, he is universally regarded as a low and sordid fellowï ¿ ½ (pp.516-518 This excerpt shows the ambivalence that More has about human nature. He sees man as essentially good but whenever an individual has ideas of their own they are regarded as inferior. This creates anotherShow MoreRelated Comparing Mores Utopia, Machiavellis The Discourses, and Hobbes The Leviathan2608 Words   |  11 PagesRelationship Between the Sovereign and the Subjects in  Mores Utopia, Machiavellis The Discourses, and Hobbes The Leviathan  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚      Thomas More, Niccolo Machiavelli, and Thomas Hobbes offer models for the relationship between the sovereign and the people in their works Utopia, The Discourses, and The Leviathan. Each argues that ensuring the common good of the people should be the primary goal of the sovereign. However, they differ in the specifics of their descriptions of this relationshipRead MorePersonal Freedom in Leviathan and Candide Essay1621 Words   |  7 PagesThe basis of Leviathan relies upon a theoretical readjustment of the state of social affairs. Candide, on the other hand, is that state of social affairs. Whereas Hobbess Leviathan relates that of how the state of human nature can be changed and adapted to a desirable social order, Voltaires Candide shows the difficulty of being within the sorry state of the human experience. But where does the concept of personal freedom come into play within these two basic premises? And how can a personRead MorePolitical Philosophy And The Natural Law856 Wo rds   |  4 Pagesthe commonwealth requires individuals to abdicate themselves to what is known as Leviathan – a â€Å"coercive power compelling individuals to live by their covenant or so-called contract.† (Personal Liberty, 383) Additionally, Hobbes believed that people are not innately or socially altruistic – sympathetic towards another being. (Personal Liberty, 401) He believed that people were driven by egoistic desires and the Leviathan will help individuals achieve their egoistic goals. Although Hobbes’s theory mayRead MoreThe Social Contract : Hobbes Vs. Rousseau1457 Words   |  6 Pagesfreedoms to the government in return for protection of their remaining rights. Throughout history, there have been a number of philosophers that have discussed the social contract and each philosopher has had there own social contract theories. Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes was the foundation for social contract theory in Western political philosophy. While The S ocial Contract by Jean-Jacques Rousseau was written a century later and inspired political reforms in Europe. Both Hobbes and Rousseau in theirRead More Human Nature as Viewed by Thomas Hobbes and David Hume Essay example1948 Words   |  8 PagesHuman Nature as Viewed by Thomas Hobbes and David Hume Thomas Hobbes in Chapter 13 of Leviathan, and David Hume in Section 3 of An Enquiry Concerning the Princples of Morals, give views of human nature. Hobbes’ view captures survivalism as significant in our nature but cannot account for altruism. We cover Hobbes’ theory with a theory of Varied Levels of Survivalism, explaining a larger body of behavior with the foundation Hobbes gives. Hume gives a scenario which does not directly proveRead MoreIs Thomas More s Utopia?1374 Words   |  6 PagesThomas More’s Utopia is a work of fiction that explores the idea of the commonwealth of Utopia as an ideal society both governmentally and productively. Later thinkers delved deeper into the questions of society, looking at why people enter societies, what type of governments are most successful, and distribution of wealth among the population. Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Adam Smith, and Karl Marx all had varying thoughts on how to achieve social order in the societies in which they lived. Their differingRead MoreAnalysis Of Alan Moores Watchmen 1482 Words   |  6 Pagessocial agreement, it would represent a utopia: One in which each man holds the same values and ideologies of those of his neighbor, resulting in a truly peaceful, conflict free, and perfect society. In this paper, I posit that Alan Moore’s â€Å"Watchmen† critiques the possibility of such a utopia existing, arguing that while all states seek to achieve complete social agreement, inevitable irreconcilable conflicting ideologies amongst a state’s citizens make utopia an impossible goal, and eventually precipitateRead MoreHobbes, Locke, Rousseau, and Machiavelli Essay1855 Words   |  8 Pagesthis can be seen in his writings concerning morality. He saw the Judeo-Christian values as faulty in the states success. Such visionary expectations, he held, bring the state to ruin, for we do not live in the world of the ought, the fanciful utopia, but in the world of is. The princes role was not to promote virtue, but to insure security. He reasoned that the Judeo-Christian values would make a ruler week if he actually possessed them, but that they could be useful in dealing with theRead MoreEssay on Going Green in the Home1671 Words   |  7 Pagesmotive has thus the effect of developments that have been initiated with an attempt to ensure a reverse of the situation. Such a world where nature is in unison with the environment is like the one depicted by Sir Thomas More in his 1516 book Utopia. Utopia was depicted to be an island; a fictional one though in the Atlantic Ocean that had an ideal society, as the creator of the fiction depicted the world ought to be, universally. Such a state, as was first proposed by Plato in his book, RepublicRead MoreLiberalism And The Ethical And Logical Level Essay1332 Words   |  6 Pagesfundamental contradictions and issues in Liberalism is the question of the power and neutrality of the state. Liberal neutrality can be understood as the idea that a neoliberal state should not promote any specific concept of perfectionism, social utopia or the ‘’good’’. This is concept is often used in critiques of multiculturalism and collective rights movements. We will be discussing the theories of some liberal authors such as John Rawls, Locke, Mill, Nozick, and Waldron among others whose philosophies

The Great Dr. Jose Rizal Free Essays

â€Å"It is a useless life that is not consecrated to a great ideal. It is like a stone wasted on the field without becoming a part of any edifice. â€Å" Jose Rizal, a man with so many accomplishments, gives all of us inspiration to put diligence and hard work in all the things we do. We will write a custom essay sample on The Great Dr. Jose Rizal or any similar topic only for you Order Now I am amazed that even though Rizal’s life has become sort of a series of unfortunate events, he still made it yield a positive and favorable outcome for his nation and countrymen. While he was in exile, he didn’t mind the fact that he was sent to Dapitan to live like a prisoner and yet he still managed to become abundantly fruitful with varied achievements for he practiced medicine, pursued scientific studies, continued his artistic and literary works, widened his knowledge of languages, established a school for boys, promoted community development projects, engaged in farming and commerce and many others. Despite his many activities, he kept an extensive correspondence with his beloved family, relatives, fellow reformists, and his friends who were eminent scientists and scholars of Europe. It is only when it was mentioned in the documentary have I realized that Rizal never left the country to his own purpose and advantage, but to extend even greater his sacrifice for the sake of the Filipinos. Rizal truly was a person for his countrymen, he truly was a patriot and nationalistic for he never wanted to see his fellow countrymen being oppressed and being exploited -what made Jose Rizal stand out of the others as a hero to a nation. He truly was a man of action, he did not only look over the people nor just tell people what to do, and he helped them in their everyday work. Rizal was intelligent and yet very humble. He always put his countrymen first before him as well he never failed to express how he loved so much his family and the people he held close to his heart through his letters to them all throughout. These are credible and more than enough reasons for me to justify that Rizal is our hero, our inspiration and our lesson of the past that just like him, we should also strive hard to live honorably and be a man for our country. How to cite The Great Dr. Jose Rizal, Papers

The Importance of Geography free essay sample

The Importance of Geography – current statement Geography provokes and answers questions about the natural and human worlds, using different scales of enquiry to view them from different perspectives. It develops knowledge of places and environments throughout the world, an understanding of maps, and a range of investigative and problem solving skills both inside and outside the classroom. As such, it prepares pupils for adult life and employment. Geography is a focus within the curriculum for understanding and resolving issues about the environment and sustainable development. It is also an important link between the natural and social sciences. As pupils study geography, they encounter different societies and cultures. This helps them realize how nations rely on each other. It can inspire them to think about their own place in the world, their values, and their rights and responsibilities to other people and the environment. Taken from: The School Curriculum and the National Curriculum: values, aims and purposes, The Importance of Geography – revised statement Option One We all live our lives geographically. We will write a custom essay sample on The Importance of Geography or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Planet Earth is our home. It is awesome, diverse, inspiring and ever changing. Studying geography invites us to participate more fully in the excitement, enjoyment and challenge of this dynamic world. It draws on personal experience, to help us better understand the places we live in, why they matter and how they are connected to a globalised world. Geography draws from across the physical, cultural, economic and political spheres to illuminate key issues for the present and the future, explored at all scales from the personal to the local and the global. Through geography we learn to appreciate the diversity of landscapes, peoples and cultures. Geography is therefore a vital subject resource for 21st century global citizens, enabling us to face questions of what it means to live sustainably in an interdependent world. Geography helps us investigate and to think critically and creatively about the complexities of places, and different views and feelings relating to places. Geography is studied through enquiry, this requires the formulation of effective questions. Fieldwork and outdoor education are essential to geography. The subject helps develop significant elements of the skills framework, with a strong emphasis on utilising maps and visual images as well as new technologies including Geographical Information. These transferable geographical skills help to equip us for lifelong learning as responsible global citizens. QCA The Importance of Geography – revised statement Option Two We live in a world of amazing beauty, infinite complexity and rigorous challenge. Geography is the subject which opens the door to this dynamic world and prepares each one of us for the role of global citizen in the 21st century. Through studying geography, people of all ages begin to appreciate how places and landscapes are formed, how people and environments interact, what consequences arise from our everyday decisions, and what a diverse range of cultures and societies exist and interconnect. Geography is a subject which builds on young people’s own experiences, helping them to formulate questions, develop their intellectual skills and find answers to issues affecting their lives. It introduces them to distinctive investigative tools such as maps, fieldwork and the use of powerful digital communication technologies. It opens their eyes to the beauty and wonder around them and acts as a source of inspiration and creativity. More than this, it ensures that they appreciate the complexity of attitudes and values which shape the way we use and misuse the environment. Through geography, people learn to value and care for the planet and all its inhabitants. QCA

Transcendentalism Essays (554 words) - Lecturers, Concord

Transcendentalism Transcendentalism was an important movement in literature that occurred during the years of 1836-1860. Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau were the best-known transcendentalists. Ralph Waldo Emerson gave the German philosopher, Immanuel Kant, the credit for making ?Transcendentalism? a familiar term. Kant had said that there were certain experiences that could be acquired only through ?intuitions of the mind.? In Kant's thoughts, transcendentalism was the knowledge or understanding a person gains intuitively. This, for the most part, sums up all of the transcendental writings that have been written to this day. Both Emerson and Thoreau were very similar in their thoughts on transcendentalism and personalities. Emerson was very strict on his-self and worked to make his writings spiritual. He made it clear that he wanted no followers. Emerson thought that if anyone were to copy his style of writing that the whole purpose would be defeated. He wanted his writings to inspire individuality. Thoreau was rigid and almost military-like. He cared little for group activities, and avoided organized reform movements. Emerson and Thoreau both wrote about how the world had an influence on their soul. They let the nature around them be their inspiration, and they wrote down the effects it had on them spiritually. Ralph Emerson wrote Nature, an essay about his surroundings, and the effect they had on him. Emerson said, ?Its effect is like that of a higher thought or a better emotion coming over me,?.? This quote came from Nature, which he wrote in 1836. Henry Thoreau wrote Walden, a book he wrote after keeping a journal about the nature around him while living at Walden Pond for seven years. Both of these works were prime examples of transcendentalism and its ideas and philosophies. After these works were published, writers started interpreting the idea in their own way. Today, we are still seeing the effects of Emerson and Thoreau in poems and other literature. The effect that nature has on us is, now, often a common thought among many of us. Transcendentalism is something we are well aware of because of Emerson and Thoreau, and their new ideas and theories. I am influenced most by transcendentalism when I sit underneath a clear starry sky on a warm summer evening. When you sit there, you can not help but let your mind wander. You start to realize how small you are compared to the rest of the world. The stars, which are, in reality, large and bright, are only a twinkle in the deep blue sky. While sitting there I take in the peacefulness of the night. You hear the crickets and other animals of the night and are forced to understand that humans are not alone in the world. We are accompanied everyday by so many other species, yet we do not pay attention to anyone but ourselves. I can also see a whole separate meaning and significance of nature, when I take in everything around me. It is not only our surroundings, but it is much greater. Nature has been here since the beginning of earth. The true aspects of nature have always been here. It shows what little amount of time we take up on Earth. We are nothing but a tiny dot on a never-ending time line of life. English Essays

Punk essays

Punk essays The date was xxxx, radio stations were saturated with the sounds of bands like Foreigner, the Eagles, and disco acts. The 70s megabands were in full force, packing huge arenas with elaborate stage effects. Underground music had taken a back seat, as music took a commercial turn. A generation of dienfranchised, felt that music needed an overhaul. Music was in need of a change. Like a proverbial wind, punk rock took the world by storm. From the mirky coasts of England, came a new sound. This sounds was to be later coined by the media as punk rock. If music can be seen as peniciliin for the soul, then punk rock was a complete overdose to the soul. Elements of punk could be traced all the way to the Whos Baba Riley, and MC5. When listend the song My Generation carries the same transcendental punk message with lyrics such as People try to put me down, talking about my Gerneration, Why dont you all just fade away. But the true turning point in the punk rock scene came from the creative mind of Malcolm MacLaren. Malcolm Maclaren was a businessman that ran a clothing store in Britishs East end. Earlier,he was flirting with the idea of marketing a glam rock band by the name of The New York Dolls. Later, his attention turned to what he was quoted as saying, My best creation yet, the infamous Sex Pistols. The true task was to turn an underground scene to the mainstream, but yet still retain the underground aura. (Gill 3). As a businessman, it is certain that Malcolm Maclaren was likely no prude to the game of manipulation. Interesting enough, the marketability and commercialization of punk rock eventually was its own demise, which will be discussed later in this paper. ...

Art And Architecture Of The Crusades History Essay

Art And Architecture Of The Crusades History Essay A man of eighty, wrote Lord Byron, has outlived probably three new schools of painting, two of architecture and poetry and a hundred in dress. Byrons sentiment would certainly ring true for most periods of those facets of human history, but the medieval time of the crusades was an exception to that rule to a large extent. Western Europe was nearly a century into the High Middle Age period when Pope Urban II called the first crusade at the Council of Clermont in 1095. This was the time of the medieval renaissance with an explosion of invention and advancement in invention, technology, culture and commercial pursuits. Painting, dress, and literature developed and were influenced on a local and regional basis. The primary influence the crusaders took with them to the Levant was architectural. Two architectural styles emerged in Western Europe during the time of the crusades – Romanesque from approximately the 11th to late 12th century, and Gothic from the 12th century to well pa st the end of the last crusade. These two styles were used in church design and construction. William the Conqueror, ultimately seizing England in 1066, helped to usher in another form (not style) of architecture that would change the landscape of medieval Europe – castles. With Romanesque architecture being in place by 1095 and Gothic soon to follow, the influence of Western European structural design and castles was set to follow them to the Holy Land, and they would bring back certain architectural influences as well as manuscript elements that would contribute to an already-growing renaissance. Church building in the Holy Land must be addressed both before and after the arrival of the Crusaders. Though Muslims had been tolerant of non-Muslims for some time, namely Christians and Jews as â€Å"People of the Book,† that tolerance and the amicable relations between them were beginning to show signs of stress. Persecution of non-Muslims began to increase after the year 1000. Muslims began destroying Christian and Jewish architecture, culminating in the ordered destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre on October 18, 1009, by Fatimid Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah. Denys Pringle, a specialist on church art and architecture in the Holy Land during the crusades, writes, â€Å"à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦by 1014, only a handful of church buildings, including the Nativity in Bethlehem and the monastery of St. Catherine on Mount Sinai, were left standing within the caliph’s lands.†Ã‚   [ 1 ]   The architectural history of the Holy Land is one that is fraught with the destruction of churches and monuments and their reconstruction when conditions improved. An example of this is the Anastasis, which was a rotunda in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. PRESENTATION IMAGE Photo – Christian religious icons, Istanbul, Turkey: Anastasis – Resurrection Fresco in Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem This is a fresco, or wall painting, depic ting the resurrection. The church was constructed by Constantine about 325 CE. It was later damaged during the Persian invasion of Jerusalem in 630 under Khosrau II, and finally ordered destroyed by Hakim. Pringle references this cycle of damage and destruction as creating a â€Å"tabula rasa,† or blank slate, upon which architecture Crusaders could later build. This was significant to the Crusade architecture that developed. The original buildings under Constantine were of course heavily influenced by Byzantine canons coupled with indigenous styles as was common to the familiarity of local people to provide easier acceptance for the sake of conversion. Had those structures remained intact, there would have been little if any room and certainly limited ability under even the most talented builder’s hand for Western influence to be added.

The world price of copper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The world price of copper - Essay Example In fact, the trade of copper began prior to the Bronze Age when Cyprus began to receive copper objects from Egypt for cuneiforms purposes. In Ancient Greece, copper has been used for architectural work and currency development while the demand for better material due to technical developments and emergence of stamping press have raised the need for copper during Industrial Revolution. Indeed, the rise of copper usage is seen dramatically as Bronze Age entered because copper has been used for several purposes. From Industrial Revolution up to the Contemporary Era, the figure below showed the worldwide changes in the prices of copper from year 2004 to 2011. From a price of $2,424 in January 2004, the price of became high amounting to $8,046 in May 2008. However, price rates fell rapidly to $3,072 in December 2008 and somewhere in 2010. With these data, one might ask â€Å"What drives the changes in the world price of copper? What are the reasons for the increase in world price of copp er? What are the reasons that made the price of copper low?† To answer the questions above, let us examine factors that may affect the price of a product – a perfect example of which would be the law of demand and supply. This could be illustrated in the table below: To guide you in understanding the figure, the horizontal line (Q) in the left figure refers to the number of quantity being demanded while the vertical line refers to the price of the product. In this paper, let us use copper to refer to the product; whereas on the right figure, it represents the relationship between quantity and price using arrows. According to Mankiw (2012), the law of demand states that as the price of the good falls, the quantity demanded rises; whereas, the law of supply states that as the price of the good rises, the quantity also supplied rises (p. 85). These relationships with price explain why the demand curve slopes downward and the supply curve slopes upward. In addition, the arr ow representation of the law of demand is seen on the right figure above. Let us apply the law of demand and supply to the worldwide changes in the prices of copper from year 2004 to 2011 (refer to the figures below). From year January 2004 to May 2008 (period of worldwide increase in copper), assumptions derived from the law of demand and supply will lead to hypotheses that the quantity of copper being demanded must have decreased or the quantity of copper being supplied must have increased for its worldwide price to escalate. Meanwhile, the reverse phenomenon in which the quantity of copper being demanded must have increased or the quantity of copper being supplied must have decreased since December 2008 for its worldwide price to de-escalate. To prove our hypotheses, let us take a closer look at the copper market. As stated earlier, copper has been of major importance to the metal industry and its prices are largely determined by the interaction of demand and supply. Thus, it is essential to allocate resources equally to attain state of equilibrium or balance. In the year 2003 to 2008, the need for copper increased dramatically as China, India, and other Asian countries accumulated supplies for structural reasons (Lipsey and Chrystal, 2007, p. 151). After 2008, world market price of copper began to collapse

Cango Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Cango - Essay Example With respect to the firm CanGo, it should be noted that the firm is aware of what industries it seeks to expand in; in addition to what industries they want to continue to remain a viable competitor. Therefore, if the firm is able to increase its sales numbers, the researchers within CanGo will find it necessary to conduct in depth analyses as a means of determining the best approach that should be made. With this accomplished, the research division, as well as the remainder of the firm, will have a means of understanding which markets are the most appealing, which require too high a level of investment, and which should be immediately engaged with. In this manner, Evolve Professional Business Consulting, has set out a baseline criteria through which CanGo should effectively research the options that are presented to them and make informed decisions based upon them. One of the most important steps that should be taken before the research itself is conducted is the question of who CanGo wishes to appeal to/sell to. Although this is something of a simplistic step, it is absolutely integral if the firm wishes to approach the research from an informed and effective standpoint. Far too many firms overlook this aspect of preliminary inquiry and set off to perform further research with incorrect assumptions that ultimately serve in misguiding the information that they are able to retrieve. Additionally, CanGo also should consider performing research for current and future sales; as a means of determining what movements in consumer markets are likely to impact the firm within the coming months and years. Market size is another fundamental aspect of business strategy and review of performance and projected business engagement that is essential in performing effective planning. As such, by identifying the target market, CanGo will be effectively able to seek to meet consumer needs within the current time frame; as well as in the near

Grapefruit Essay Example for Free

Grapefruit Essay One ancestor of the grapefruit was the Jamaican sweet orange (Citrus sinensis), itself an ancient hybrid of Asian origin; the other was the Indonesian pomelo (C. maxima). One story of the fruits origins is that a certain Captain Shaddockbrought pomelo seeds to Jamaica and bred the first fruit But it probably originated as a naturally-occurring hybrid. The hybrid fruit was documented in 1750 by a Welshman, Rev. Griffith Hughes, who described specimens from Barbados. Currently, the grapefruit is said to be one of the Seven Wonders of Barbados. It was brought to Florida by Count Odette Philippe in 1823 in what is now known as Safety Harbor. Further crosses have produced the tangelo (1905), the Minneola tangelo (1931), and the oroblanco (sweetie)(1984). The sweetie has very small genetic and other differences from the pomelo. The grapefruit was known as the shaddock or shattuck until the 19th century. Its current name alludes to clusters of the fruit on the tree, which often appear similar to grapes. Botanically, it was not distinguished from the pomelo until the 1830s, when it was given the name Citrus paradisi. Its true origins were not determined until the 1940s. This led to the official name being altered to Citrus Ãâ€" aradisi, the Ãâ€" identifying its hybrid origin. An early pioneer in the American citrus industry was Kimball Chase Atwood, a wealthy entrepreneur who founded the Atwood Grapefruit Co. in the late 19th century. The Atwood Grove became the largest grapefruit grove in the world, with an annual production of 80,000 boxes of fruit. It was there that pink grapefruit was first discovered in 1906. The Florida Department of Citrus states the primary varieties of Florida grapefruit are Ruby Red, Pink, Thompson, Marsh and Duncan. The fresh grapefruit season typically runs from October through June.

Aristotles Perspective of Friendship in Homers Iliad Essay -- Philos

An Aristotelian Examination of Friendship in Homer's Iliad It is strange to label any friendship a success or a failure; it is stranger still to call the friendship between Achilleus and Patroklos a failure, especially when it has long been celebrated as one of the greatest friendships in antiquity. After all, friendship is called a success when friends remain just that, and a failure when they part ways with diffidence. How else could we possibly judge friendship? I suggest, however, that the good of the friend is the end of true friendship, and that this principle can guide critical inquiry into the nature of friendship. The basis of this statement is Aristotelian. The Nicomachean Ethics defines true friendship as the mutual appreciation of the intrinsic good in the other, and the desire to will the other’s good. The critique of true friendship, in Aristotelian terms, should consider not only whether the parties loved each other for their intrinsic good, but also the extent to which they were successful at promoting the good of the other. The tragedy of Achilleus and Patroklos is that, despite their love and desire to promote the good of the other, they may have ultimately failed. Their friendship may have failed not because of a lack of good will or capability, but because of the conflicting obligations placed upon that friendship by society, circumstance, and the unyielding character of Achilleus. For Aristotle, the perfect form of friendship "is that between good men who are alike in excellence or virtue" (Ethics 8.219).1 Indeed, both Achilleus and Patroklos are foremost amongst the Achaians, and both are commanders and warriors of the first rank. Yet, theirs is not exactly a friendship between equals either; ... ...Hades. It is ironic that the friendship of Achilleus and Patroklos resonates so strongly precisely because of their tragic self-sacrifice; it is, perhaps, the most successful, celebrated, true friendship, that ever ended in failure. Works Cited 1. Aristotle, Nichomachean Ethics, trans. Martin Ostwald (Library of Liberal Arts 1999). Citations are given in book and page number. 2. Homer, The Iliad, trans. Richmond Lattimore (University of Chicago Press 1961). All subsequent citations are given in book and page number. 3. (Ethics 9.248): "Similarly, should he accommodate a friend rather than a good man†¦if he is not in a position to do both?" Book 9, Chapter 2 "Conflicting Obligations" deals with this subject at length. 4. (Ethics 9.250): "A further problem is whether or not a friendship should be broken off when the friend does not remain what he was." Aristotle's Perspective of Friendship in Homer's Iliad Essay -- Philos An Aristotelian Examination of Friendship in Homer's Iliad It is strange to label any friendship a success or a failure; it is stranger still to call the friendship between Achilleus and Patroklos a failure, especially when it has long been celebrated as one of the greatest friendships in antiquity. After all, friendship is called a success when friends remain just that, and a failure when they part ways with diffidence. How else could we possibly judge friendship? I suggest, however, that the good of the friend is the end of true friendship, and that this principle can guide critical inquiry into the nature of friendship. The basis of this statement is Aristotelian. The Nicomachean Ethics defines true friendship as the mutual appreciation of the intrinsic good in the other, and the desire to will the other’s good. The critique of true friendship, in Aristotelian terms, should consider not only whether the parties loved each other for their intrinsic good, but also the extent to which they were successful at promoting the good of the other. The tragedy of Achilleus and Patroklos is that, despite their love and desire to promote the good of the other, they may have ultimately failed. Their friendship may have failed not because of a lack of good will or capability, but because of the conflicting obligations placed upon that friendship by society, circumstance, and the unyielding character of Achilleus. For Aristotle, the perfect form of friendship "is that between good men who are alike in excellence or virtue" (Ethics 8.219).1 Indeed, both Achilleus and Patroklos are foremost amongst the Achaians, and both are commanders and warriors of the first rank. Yet, theirs is not exactly a friendship between equals either; ... ...Hades. It is ironic that the friendship of Achilleus and Patroklos resonates so strongly precisely because of their tragic self-sacrifice; it is, perhaps, the most successful, celebrated, true friendship, that ever ended in failure. Works Cited 1. Aristotle, Nichomachean Ethics, trans. Martin Ostwald (Library of Liberal Arts 1999). Citations are given in book and page number. 2. Homer, The Iliad, trans. Richmond Lattimore (University of Chicago Press 1961). All subsequent citations are given in book and page number. 3. (Ethics 9.248): "Similarly, should he accommodate a friend rather than a good man†¦if he is not in a position to do both?" Book 9, Chapter 2 "Conflicting Obligations" deals with this subject at length. 4. (Ethics 9.250): "A further problem is whether or not a friendship should be broken off when the friend does not remain what he was."

Assesing the Curriculum for Special Education Essay

School can be particularly challenging for children with special needs, including those with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder or ADHD, who often experience poor academic performance, behavior problems, and difficulties with social interaction. The situation can be further complicated by the fact that there is no typical, predictable classroom style common to all children with special needs, for that matter. It can also be hard for parents to tell how much of any problem identified by a teacher falls into the normal range of a child development, for example how much is due to ADHD, and how much is due to coexisting problem such as learning disability, anxiety disorder, or disruptive behavior and others. Add to this fact that the public school system here in the Philippines may not have Individualized Education Program (IEP) that will meet the needs of these special children. In this study, the researcher will use different basic methods of assessing special education curriculum how it may be integrated into the mainstream or general education particularly in the Philippine public school system, without compromising quality of education. Objectives of the Study The objectives of this research proposal are a) to assess the basic curriculum of special education; b) to identify the positive and negative effect of the integration of such curriculum with the general education in the mainstream classroom and c) to identify effective classroom and teaching styles of special education. Statement of the Problem So many parents who have a child with special needs, particularly ADHD, have a dilemma when it comes to placing their children in public school system in the Philippines, since they are not included in the public school curriculum. And most public school teachers, if not some, may not be fully aware of the special needs of a child with ADHD and for that matter, does not have special skills in dealing with such students. Only special schools or some private schools deal with special children or include special education in their general education curriculum. On November 2005, my six-year old daughter was diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Since she was moving up to first grade, sending her to a public school was practical and a good choice, yet doubtful that the public school system has educational intervention for children with special needs like her, within the mainstream classroom setting. Her developmental pediatrician suggested for a behavioral therapy and tutorial through a SPED School, for that matter but it was important for my child to interact with children her age in a normal classroom setting, so the plan did not push through. . Scope and Limitation The Department of Education often stresses the need for a good public education which is free and accessible to every child in the country, including children with special needs, particularly those with Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) who came from all levels of society. It is therefore important to assess and evaluate special education curriculum to see if it can be integrated in the mainstream classroom. The special education evaluation process requires the school district to assess the student in all areas related to the suspected disability as well as conducting a comprehensive educational assessment for integration to happen in a normal classroom. Most educators believe that children with disabilities and nondisabled children should be taught together whenever possible. Isolating children with disabilities may lower their self-esteem and may reduce their ability to deal with other people. The practice of integrating children with disabilities into regular school programs is called mainstreaming, or inclusion. Students with disabilities attend special classrooms or schools only if their need for very specialized services makes mainstreaming impossible. Many children with disabilities attend regular classes most of the school day: They work with a specially trained teacher for part of each day to improve specific skills. These sessions may be held in a classroom  called a resource room, which may be equipped with such materials as Braille typewriters and relief maps for blind students. Other students with disabilities attend special classes most of the day but join the rest of the children for certain activities. For example, students with mental retardation (MR) may join other children who do not have MR for art and physical education. Although the place where instruction occurs (the setting) is seen as important in the field of special education, the types of curricular modifications and interventions may be a more important area to focus on in the future. Hypothesis This research is important in giving helpful ideas in relation to a child with special needs, especially with ADHD, and the effect of learnings he will get, especially in the public school setting, which gives free education to all. This research will help foster a child’s academic and social success in school through a good curriculum designed specifically for his needs, by assessing general education curriculum through the Curriculum-based evaluation and other related tools for assessment and evaluation. This research will deal on the questions: 1. What type of school-related challenges children face most often? 2. How effective is the special education curriculum to children with special needs and what areas need improvement? 3. Which classroom structures, teachings styles and accommodations can best support the child’s learning? 4. How can the integration affect the mainstream classroom? CHAPTER II Related Literature Blankenship, C. S. , (1985). Using curriculum-based assessment data to make instructional decisions. Exceptional Children, 52, 233-238. This article is part of a special issue of Exceptional Children devoted to Curriculum-Based Assessment. Blankenship describes the essential features of CBA and provides suggestions for development. She places a special emphasis on describing how teachers can use CBA for curriculum placement, materials, and instructional procedures. CBA and CBM Compare and Contrast www. teacherstoolkit. com/classroom1. htm CBA and CBM are compared and contrasted on this Web site. This is a good site for educators who are new to Curriculum-Based Evaluation as basic differences between CBA and CBM are described. A few articles and books are referenced. CBA Techniques www. johnvenn. com/assessment. htm The author of this site, John Venn, is a professor of education at the University of North Florida and is a good resource for teachers who are interested in implementing CBA in their classrooms. Venn lists in-class assessment and alternative grading strategies. He stresses how CBA techniques are quick, easy and that any teacher can use them. Deno, S. L. , (1985). Curriculum-based measurement: the emerging alternative. Exceptional Children, 52(3), 219-232. Deno introduces CBM as an alternative assessment approach that is both valid and reliable. He discusses the advantages and disadvantages of informal observation and also standardized commercial achievement tests. Dizon, Edilberto I. , Ed. D. An Article: Educational Intervention for Children with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. UP College of Education, 1998. This article discusses the priorities and guidelines in teaching children with ADHD. The author discussed how to assess the classroom that would enable teachers to decide on appropriate placement and design a customized educational program for the child, even at a mainstream classroom. He also talked about structure within in the classroom, its organization of chairs and tables and seating arrangements and the workspace for the child. It is also important to assess the curriculum and its contents. To make sure that there is provision of task-analyzing for the different skills of the child, to adopt anticipatory teaching and guidance which emphasize foresight and preventive intervention. Supervisors should be able to assess if teachers are able to focus on processes as much as outcome in their teaching and are able implement good behavioral management inside the classroom. Hall, T. , & Mengel, M. (2002). Curriculum-based evaluations. Wakefield, MA: National Center on Accessing the General Curriculum. Retrieved [3/22/2008] from http://www. cast. org/publications/ncac/ncac_curriculumbe. html This publication includes discussions on academic assessment, which is a long-standing tradition in education. Assessment usually involves measurement of student progress for the purpose of informing. One level of informing is identification or eligibility decision-making, a second level is that of informing instruction. Traditional assessment instruments have limitations which restrict their application for instructional program planning. It also introduces alternative assessment procedures appearing in educational literature in the last 20 years are Curriculum-Based Evaluations (CBE). Whereas standardized commercial achievement tests measure broad curriculum areas and/or skills, CBE measures specific skills that are presently being taught in the classroom, usually in basic skills. It further states that assessment usually involves measurement of student progress for the purpose of informing. The author reviewed the beginning of CBE, wherein many of its systems had their beginnings in the special education domain. In some cases, research began specifically in the self-contained special education classroom. In others, the roots of the measurement system sprang from the desire to most appropriately integrate students with disabilities into the general education classroom. The tools described here under the name of Curriculum-Based Evaluations all had important roles and made contributions in research and practice in the general education class. Peters, Helen. An Article: Understanding and Educating Children with ADHD. Winston Churchill Fellow. 1998 This article was written as an overview in educating children with ADHD. The author describes children with ADHD and how to identify these children at the early years. She discussed about the rules in assessing ADHD. In classroom assessment, the author came up with four important questions in order for a teacher to have an effective classroom management. Understanding the different learning styles for special children was also discussed in this article. A series of questions were asked when thinking how to support the learning needs of the ADHD child was also included in this paper. The author also mentioned the school’s response to academic failure and the importance of visual display of lessons. Reiff, Michael I. , & Tippins, Sherill, (2004). The American Academy of Pediatrics: ADHD: A Complete and Authoritative Guide. Your Child at School, 155-193. American Academy of Pediatrics. This book will help readers apply the most current evidence-based and best-practice approaches for finding solutions for children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Many important topics are addressed in this book including the advice on management techniques for school and home. In the chapter Your Child at School, readers will learn the type of school-related challenges children with ADHD face most often, the classroom structures, school policies, teaching styles and accommodations that can be beneficial for child with ADHD learns and how to individualized education program can work with a child, his teachers and even his pediatrician. CHAPTER III Methodology and Procedure 1. Conduct a literature review on special education curriculum and the public education system in the Philippines. 2. Observe a special education class for 1 hour everyday, for one week, focusing mostly on the curriculum, classroom and behavioral management and teacher’s skills, using the CBE Curriculum-Based Evaluations are best defined by Deno (1987) as â€Å"any set of measurement procedures that use direct observation and recording of a student’s performance in a local curriculum as a basis for gathering information to make instructional decisions† (in Shinn, 1989; p. 62): †¢ 3. Interview a public school superintendent/principal and teachers to attempt to gather reactions on the integration of special education curriculum into the general education system. The following questions will be: †¢ a. What is the general curriculum in the regular classroom? †¢ b. What are the aids, services or changes to the educational program that would help the child learn and achieve? †¢ c. What do you think are your strategies to help the child with behavior, if behavior is an issue? †¢ d. How can your student with special needs be involved and progress in the general curriculum? †¢ e. How can your student participate in extracurricular and other activities? and †¢ f. How can he/she be educated with other children, both with and without disabilities? 4. Interview a special education supervisor and teachers to attempt to gather reactions on the integration of special education curriculum into the general education system. While the interviews will not be formal or structured, the kinds of questions I will ask include the following: a. What type of school-related challenges children face most often? b. How effective is the special education curriculum to children with special needs and what areas need improvement? c. Which classroom structures, teachings styles and accommodations can best support the child’s learning? d. How can the integration affect the mainstream classroom? 5. Write a research report that combines my understanding of the special education issue and previous research with the results of my empirical research. [pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic]

Enterprise’s success Essay

Do you think that Avis/Hertz will be able to replicate Enterprise’s success in the local car rental market? It’s hard to believe that Avis/Hertz would be able to replicate Enterprise’s success (at least in the near term) in the local car rental market. Given their current dominance in the market, relationships with auto shops/dealerships/insurance companies, and reservation system’s direct interface with insurers, Enterprise is the most well positioned car rental company for discretionary and insurance repair/replacement rentals. Dominance – Enterprise initially sacrificed investment in the airport market in order to dominate the local market. With its 6,000 branches, one wonders how Avis/Hertz would begin to match Enterprise’s footprint? I imagine this could only be accomplished via substantial capital investments on the parts of Avis/Hertz coupled with initial price breaks for customers in order to tear business away from Enterprise. This action, however, would eat into the profitability of said market. Additionally, Avis/Hertz would have to compete with the burgeoning car sharing industry. These obstacles appear to be too significant to overcome so late in the game. Relationships – The ties established between Enterprise and the auto shops/dealerships/insurance companies are deeply rooted and well founded. In order to convince these institutions that an Avis/Hertz relationship would also be beneficial (or would be superior to Enterprise’s), a compelling sales pitch would need to be made. What can Avis/Hertz offer these institutions that Enterprise isn’t currently providing? The products/services of all three-car rental agencies appear to be of equal quality (if not a slight edge given to Enterprise), so what is the end benefit of new relationships to auto shop/dealership/insurance company? Interface – The case does not quantify any initial investments made by the insurers to develop the reservation interface, but one must assume the investments were substantial (either measured in capital or time). In order to be profitable/dominant in the local market, Avis/Hertz would either have to abolish these ties, establish new ones (assuming there are untapped institutions), or run their systems in parallel with Enterprise’s. The latter appears to be most likely, and that could result in profit erosion, as Avis/Hertz would likely have to reduce prices in order to gain market share. I question whether an auto shop/dealer/insurer would even want to train employees how to use a competitor’s system, unless there is a  substantial upside in doing so. Side note: My only reservation in giving Enterprise sole competitive advantage in this space is their apparent penchant for risk. By handling all of its own vehicle sales, has Enterprise merely been lucky or are they simply more skilled at the buying/selling of their fleet? Given Enterprise’s long-term success, one must assume the latter†¦

Free Essays on The Three-Legged Stool

The Three-Legged Stool The book ‘The Three-Legged Stool’ by Ronald S. Boreham, clearly explained the philosophy for managing a company. The book had offered a different technique to evaluate company success. Author had also clearly proved his point by providing examples of successful companies like Wal-Mart. The book focuses on balancing the three important constituencies of any business –customers, employees and owners. Book also focuses on relationships with suppliers. There are many companies out there that are missing this balance. I totally agree with each and every detail provided in this book. Relationship is completely made of trust. Customers should always be portrayed as people instead of numbers, knowing more about a customer than a competition is an important key to maintain an existing customer. I also liked the guidelines to evaluate the customer, also always believed in face to face contact with customer. If the employer has nothing to hide then employees will feel important. A little attempt made to get an employee opinion can bring in great deal of success. I always believed in open door policies which doesn’t only mean to visit the supervisor but by telephone, letter, email etc. Many companies today are missing employee survey, which in my view is dropping the communication ball. I also liked the misconceptions and myths book had described. Good long term relationships with owners and shareholders are also extremely important. When such good relations are enjoyed any temporary bad news are correctly viewed in people’s minds. A good balance between shareholders and employees is extremely important. An interesting aspect of the book was relationships with suppliers. Due to heavy competition companies these days are neglecting this relationship. A relationship with Supplier is nothing but a win-win situation. It brings out new ideas and creativity along with value. In conclusion the book had laid out a g... Free Essays on The Three-Legged Stool Free Essays on The Three-Legged Stool The Three-Legged Stool The book ‘The Three-Legged Stool’ by Ronald S. Boreham, clearly explained the philosophy for managing a company. The book had offered a different technique to evaluate company success. Author had also clearly proved his point by providing examples of successful companies like Wal-Mart. The book focuses on balancing the three important constituencies of any business –customers, employees and owners. Book also focuses on relationships with suppliers. There are many companies out there that are missing this balance. I totally agree with each and every detail provided in this book. Relationship is completely made of trust. Customers should always be portrayed as people instead of numbers, knowing more about a customer than a competition is an important key to maintain an existing customer. I also liked the guidelines to evaluate the customer, also always believed in face to face contact with customer. If the employer has nothing to hide then employees will feel important. A little attempt made to get an employee opinion can bring in great deal of success. I always believed in open door policies which doesn’t only mean to visit the supervisor but by telephone, letter, email etc. Many companies today are missing employee survey, which in my view is dropping the communication ball. I also liked the misconceptions and myths book had described. Good long term relationships with owners and shareholders are also extremely important. When such good relations are enjoyed any temporary bad news are correctly viewed in people’s minds. A good balance between shareholders and employees is extremely important. An interesting aspect of the book was relationships with suppliers. Due to heavy competition companies these days are neglecting this relationship. A relationship with Supplier is nothing but a win-win situation. It brings out new ideas and creativity along with value. In conclusion the book had laid out a g...

A Practical Guide to Successful Teaching Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

A Practical Guide to Successful Teaching - Essay Example To do this, facilitating the learning process becomes vital. This is because it is the role of the teacher to interact and professionally relate with the students in a manner that enhances their educational welfare. In so doing, the teaching-learning roles of a teacher are met. To complement this process, teacher responsibilities are factored in. This is done by ensuring that the teacher constantly monitors changes in the teaching and learning environment so that any vital changes are adopted in a timely manner. Most importantly, ethics and professional conduct crown the teacher’s responsibilities. The discharge of the teacher’s role and responsibilities inform the completeness of the teaching cycle. Of course, the cycle is characterized by critical boundaries that have to be observed at all times. While the teaching-learning environment requires student-teacher interaction and professional relations be maintained, the process is subject to boundaries that outline the extent to which such interactions and relations can go. Striking a balance between the issues, concerns, interests, goals, and objectives of teaching and learning maintains a professional perspective of the role, responsibilities and boundaries of a teacher in terms of the teaching cycle (Ingleby, Dawn, & Powell, 2011, p.92). The educational setting is broad in scope and practice. As a result, the applicable legislation and codes of practice vary across differentiated fields of specialization. The education fraternity is made up of numerous subjects, all of which contribute significantly to the success of the education sector. The education organizational setting is regulated and/or governed by numerous current legislation, among them: Equality Act 2010, Race Relations (Amendment) Act 2000, Data Protection Act 1998,  Special Educational Needs and Disability Act 2001, and Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 (LSC, 2007). Moreover, in specific fields like social sciences, there are applicable legislation that regulates, monitor, and govern the training and execution of examinations.

Criminology Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Criminology - Movie Review Example New Year’s Eve celebration was launched by the gangs in the name of a military operation whereby each character take a specific role. For instance, Josh Howard (Davis) was to drive a garbage truck while the rest were to steal from various casinos. Sam Harmon. Charges were made on replacing the electrical transmission tower and in each casino electrical systems to give a backup are rewired. At midnight when everyone is celebrating and singing in all the casino the tower was placed down and darkness that was inevitable sets occurs. Funny enough the cashier cages containing money are opened instantly by the backup electrical systems contrary to putting on the emergency lights. In no waste of time, they moved into the cashier cages and stole the money. They removed money from bags and dump the bags in the garbage bin. Creatively they went back and joined the crowd pretending they were among them. Immediately lights were back, the thieves left the casinos. Josh drove the garbage truck and collects the bags passing through the blockade of the police with absence of people notice. Coincidentally Tony Bergdorf (Conte) who was an electrician got a heart attack and dropped dead in the middle of Las Vegas strip. This death caused a lot of concern as police wondered whether there was any connection with the robbery. Duke Santos (Romeo) gets reformed and decided to get back the casino bosses’ money for a return. In this scenario, he learns of Ocean and is connected to Foster, the son of Duke’s fiancà ©e (chase). Person contemplates about that before the return of Bergdorf’s body at mortuary. Santos talked to the robberies asking for half of the money. Nevertheless $10000 was set for the widow (Jean Willies) of the electrician and the rest hidden in the coffin. Creatively the group had planned to take the money in no return to Santos after coffin is taken to Francisco. However, the

Dispute Between Workers Union And Employer Case Study - 17

Dispute Between Workers Union And Employer - Case Study Example The Union has appealed to the NLRB to set aside the election results. If I were on NLRB, I would set aside the elections because of the provisions of Taft-Hartley labor act. While the act allows employers the right to interact with employees with the aim of influencing union activities and actions, expressions into the interactions must not pose threats of reprisal. The case, however, identifies potential threats of reprisal, from the management, which could have intimidated union members and led to restraint from participation in the elections. From the supervisor’s repeated appearance in the vicinity, the union members had all the reasons to fear intimidation and harsh treatment from the management if the union won in the elections. It was also normal for the union members to believe that the supervisor was acting in his normal capacity as an agent of the management because that is his regular position. These arguments identify implied the threat of reprisal and mean that the employer, through its supervisor, breached provisions of the Taft-Ha rtley Act.

Tyco Corporation Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Tyco Corporation - Case Study Example The corporate culture at Tyco under the control of Dennis Kozlowski (and previous CEO, Joseph Gaziano) placed huge importance on aggressive leadership style and acquisition rate, trying to increase the overall earnings of the company by expansion rather than thrifty and careful planning to increase the profits for shareholders. Additionally, the corporate culture seems to have encouraged managers and employees of Tyco to use false or ambiguous accounting styles to allow the continuing expansion of the company. Using these accounting styles, as well as the decentralization of the different branches of Tyco meant that the organizational culture of the company under Kozlowski allowed for falsification and secrecy in the accounting, misleading investors and diverting funds towards Kozlowski. As previously mentioned, there were several accounting tricks and slights of hand involved in the accounting at Tyco under Kozlowski, and this meant there were several loopholes and several areas which were not being accounted for as they should be in such a company. The fact that these bonuses were not authorized could have meant that Kozlowski could siphon them off into a personal account without any board interference, particularly as all departments worked in semi-isolation and reported to Kozlowski before reporting to the board members. Kozlowski continues to claim innocence to this day, which suggests that he feels that these actions he took were not criminal. Additionally, he claims that the jurors that sentenced him were â€Å"jealous†, presumably because of his large wealth (parts of which were gained through the aforementioned criminal activities). Kozlowski, then, is unrepentant because he claims his innocence, presumably because he feels that as CEO he had some right to alter or falsify some of the figures to give Tyco a large profit; he probably felt that in some way he was benefiting the shareholders during this act, giving him a clean conscience.

Aspects to Translating Literature

Aspects to Translating Literature 1.) Introduction Translating texts requires skill, ability on the part of a translator in understanding the terms used in the source language (SL). As experts have pointed out, translation does not fully transfer the meaning of the terms from the SL toward the target language (TL) in which the texts are being translated. But in order to get closely as much as possible to the exact meaning of the term, translators follow a basic rule to put into mind the cultural nuances of the original term while finding their equivalent terms in another language (e.g. Arabic to English). In addition, because these terms have additional symbolic value as religious terms, translators must bear in mind of being careful in the translation. Toury (198 in Venuti ed.) himself highlights the role of translation in retaining the cultural nuances of the texts by saying that translators have a task â€Å"to fulfill a function allotted by a community to an activity, its practitioners and their products in a way deemed appropri ate to its terms of reference.† This researcher intends to ascertain the skill and success of Issam Diab in translating Ar Raheeq al Makhtoom, the memoirs of the Prophet Mohammad, from Arabic into English. Titled The Sealed Nectar, the memoirs records the life of Mohammad, while also discussing the socio-ecnomic background of Arabia during his lifetime. It was originally written by Saifur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri. 2.) Review of literature in brief Translation experts have pointed out various concerns in ensuring the translation of works from different languages. These range from defining when translations â€Å"formally† diverge from the literal meanings (Catford 141 in Venuti ed.) to ascertaining the equivalence of word meanings (Nida and Taber,) But all point to the problem of retaining the message of a text translated from SL to TL as much as possible. In addition translators have to consider the referential meanings of the words that they correspond so that they can define the exact meanings of the SL-based words that they are going to use. Culture aspects Studies such by Ahmed Elimam being conducted at the University of Manchester have tried to show the challenges in translating Arabic-language texts to English. Translators undertaking these projects faced the fact that there is a large diversity in terms of structural, grammatical, and semantic structure between the two languages. In addition they have to consider keeping as close as possible to the Arabic heritage the translated works. They also have to make sure that they words in Arabic which, by virtue of having deep cultural connotations, One can see this in the ongoing project to translate the Q’uran from Arabic to English as shown by Elimam. In this project, a team of translators tried to examine 10 translation of verses from the Q’uran and examine what are the grammatical and syntax changes were done in order to adjust in from the transfer of meaning from Arabic to English. Another continuing study made at the University of Manchester was of Ashraf Abdul Fattah was on comparing the changes of conjunction and passivisation in the translated works of Arab authors. This time the focus was on how changes in conjunction were made between the original and translated work made by the same authors. One can see here the attempt to verify if an author trying to translate his own works to another language can effectively transfer meaning given the differences in languages. 3). Issues in translation Translation studies have pointed out that there are terms in texts which must be carefully analyzed by a translator before proceeding in the translation proper. These terms are called â€Å"sensitive terms† which are defined as words considered central to the beliefs of the people owning the original texts. These may pertain to sacred teachings, quotations by the religions’ prophets or sages. Because of these, it is vital for translators to understand the religious beliefs, traditions and nuances behind the SL before undertaking any translation of religious texts. However, similar to translating works in other genres, translators have to deal with linguistic and cultural challenges before even being able to translate a work. According to Toury (199 in Venuti ed.), the main challenges faced by translators involve the systematic differences between languages (in terms of grammar, syntax, sentence structure), the variety in textual traditions contained in the texts to be translated, and also the â€Å"cognitive ability† of the translator to comprehend and transmit the meanings of the original texts from the original language to another language. In translating these terms, it is essential to consider first some important aspects in translation: translation shifts, kinds of norms types of equivalence, and emotive meaning. These factors determine how closely concise has a translator managed to express in the TL the meanings and terms originally expressed in the source language SL of a text . Translating texts involve changes in the use of grammar, contexts, and sentence structure, said Cartford (141 in Venuti ed.) in a seminal study on translation shifts. These translation changes are categorized as level shifts and categorical shifts. Level shifts occur in translation when the meaning of an SL item, at one linguistic level, changes meaning at another linguistic level of the TL. In particular, this kind of shift occurs when the translator attempts to translate the meanings at the phonological and graphological meanings but the result will be only a shift from grammar to lexis levels. Categorical shifts occur when there are variations in rank, structure, class, term in systems while a text is being translated from the SL to the TL. But Cartford (141 in Venuti ed.) qualifies this description by saying that there is a categorical shift when there is some form of formal correspondence between SL and TL. Structural shifts are the most common kind of categorical shifts and are noticeable in total translations, phonological and graphological translations Cartford (143 in Venuti ed.) added. Class shifts happen when the meaning of an SL item changes at a different translation level. Unit changes are observed when there is â€Å"a formal departure† in translation equivalent in one rank of the SL to another rank in the TL. Finally, intra-system shifts occur in cases where changes happen within the systems of both of SL and TL, where these systems still correspond to the languages’ â€Å"formal constitution.† However this must be qualified if the translation â€Å"involves selection of non-corresponding term in the TL system† Toury (199 in Venuti ed.) noted that translators are constrained by a wide range of â€Å"social regulations† which govern the behavior of a cultural community. This implied that there are particular cultural contexts which must be retained in the translation of terms from one language to another. At one pole of this continuum, are the absolute rules. These rules include local laws, ethics and traditions. At the other end are the idiosyncracies which pertain to the particular practices of individuals exhibited according to a particular situation. Located in between these far ends of the socio-cultural regulation scale are the norms which refer to the generally flexible set of rules governing particular situations in a context. These three kinds of social regulations influence translation because texts contain particular contexts which could only be explained through understanding these social regulations. Toury (200 in Venuti ed.) also pointed out that translation is a norm-governed activity because it also follows a set of rules pertaining to usage and transfer of meaning. This is flexible because each language has its particular meaning and context, hence the rules in terms of grammar and syntax may not be always be applicable. As he notes in his article, translation is being governed by norms depending on: Being a text in a certain language, and hence occupying a position, or filling a slot, in the appropriate culture, or a certain section thereof; Constituting a representation in that language/culture of another, preexisting text in some other language, belonging to some other culture and occupying a definite position. In translation, there are two large categories of norms which must be considered in planning and doing a translation of a work, namely: preliminary norms and operation norms. Preliminary norms pertain to the rules and policies governing the choice of text types to be translated and also the â€Å"tolerance† for translation (referring to the feasibility of translating terms which may have very specific cultural contexts not available in the language of the translator.), said Toury. Operational terms, he added, refer to the actual decisions made in the course of translations such as the distribution of textual material, verbal formulation and the like. Falling under operational norms are matricial (referring to the determination on the very existence of a textual material) and textual norms (which govern selection and usage of textual material to be translated.) Toury said that in general preliminary norms predominate over operational norms because the former lays down the structural basis in conducting a translation work (203). However despite this, the norms may still intersect, depending on the translation processes ensuing in a work. He also explained that multiplicity of norms still remain because each culture retains standards of regulating behavior even as they interact with other traditions. As a result translators have to face it and try to resolve them rather than just â€Å"ignore.† In Toury’s own words: â€Å" They only mean that real-life situations tend to be complex; and this complexity had better be noted rather than ignored, if one is to draw any justifiable conclusions. As already argued, the only viable way out seems to be to contextualize every phenomenon, every item, every text, every act, on the way to allotting the different norms themselves their appropriate position and valence† (205 in Venuti ed.) Another point of concern among linguist and translators is the equivalence of translating a meaning from the SL to the TL. Nida and Taber (200) defined equivalence as â€Å"very close similarity in meaning as opposed to similarity to form.† However, translation theorists have various concepts to explain and classify equivalence. Hoang pointed out in an online presentation that Nida and Taber had already gave out formal and dynamic equivalence in 1982 while Jakobensen theorized in 1959 equivalence can be achieved by a translator by using loan translations, neologisms, semantic shifts and circumlocutions. In 1992 Mona Baker came out with her own set of kinds of equivalences. These are â€Å"word level equivalence,† â€Å"equivalence above word level,† â€Å"grammatical equivalence† â€Å"textual â€Å"equivalence† and â€Å"pragmatic â€Å"equivalence.† Baker’s classification falls under the â€Å"formal’ equivalence category which focuses on how translators can use the forms of the texts in getting the closest meaning for an SL word, said Hoang. â€Å"Word level equivalence† refers to the attempt by a translator to find a corresponding meaning of one word from the SL to the TL. This effort entails a translator ensuring as much as possible that the counterpart word of the TL closely hews to the context of the original word from the SL. There are cases however when the texts between SL and TL do not correspond close enough to allow for the use of word level equivalence. In this case the translator must use the â€Å"equivalence above word level.† Here, the translator must find meanings which, while not be closely relate the corresponding TL word with the original SL word, must at least be related enough for the meanings to be still correlated. In the third strategy, the translator uses it when the correspondence between the two texts would only be found between the grammatical structures of the text. As a result, the translator has to analyse the grammatical correspondence between the texts of SL and TL, where despite the variety in the structural order of morpheme, syntax, and sentence orders, the same concepts or meaning can still be correlated between the two texts. However, there are instances when there is little correspondence in the verbal and grammatical structures of the SL and TL texts because there of a high diversity in the order of word and grammar structure. In light of this, the translator has to find correspondence in the overall textual structure of the SL and TL texts. He has to ascertain that the overall context in the SL text is still expressed in the TL version even though there are variations in grammar and syntax structures. If all these strategies still would not be able to correspond meaning between the SL and TL, then the translator has to use the pragmatic equivalence mode. Here, the translator uses the implied meanings of the SL text in order to at least express them in the TL . Another aspect in translating concepts from SL to TL is the use by translators of referential meanings. Nida (56) defines â€Å"referential meanings† as the use of â€Å"words as symbols to refer to objects, events, abstracts and relations.† The implication of this concept in translation is that translators have to consider the exact meanings of words based from OL in the translation of texts. (This is called denotation in grammar) This importance is highlighted by the fact that there is a diversity of meanings within those cultures and more so when translators try to get these exact meanings. One way to ensure this is to consult authoritative dictionaries of the SL concerned. One last aspect to consider in translation is the effect of emotive meanings to the translators. The Summer Institute of Linguistics online glossary defines â€Å"emotive meanings† as â€Å"affective meaning,† while terms related to it are â€Å"connotation/connotative meanings.† In sum, emotive meanings are definitions which have an association with a thing or concept even though these may not have direct conceptual relationship. The translators have to consider this while translating works from SL to TL because there are chances when the meanings that they try to correlate from SL to TL may just be a connotative meaning. Another way is to verify the specific contexts when these words are used. Aims The researcher aims to test, compare and synthesize the discussions above on various translation principles by conducting a review of â€Å"The Sealed Nectar (Ar Raheeq al Makhtum).† An English translation of the memoirs of the Prophet Muhammad was made by Issam Diab and was published in Saudi Arabia. With this translated memoir as the locus of the study, this researcher aims to fulfill the following aims: For the translation shift aspect, the researcher proposes to compare the source language (Arabic) and target language (English), identifying the translation shifts that happened in the book, and justifying the translator’s choice in making these translation shifts. As for the normative aspect, the researcher proposes to find out a.) if the translated version of the memoirs has consistency in the kind of norms and equivalence used even as it approached referential meaning. And b.) if the translated version has consistency in the kind of norms and equivalency while appr oaching emotive meaning. Finally, the researcher intends to contextualize the findings in the fact that many of the â€Å"sensitive terms† may be religious in nature This is study is made also with the aim of understanding the cultural and linguistic nuances distinguishable between English and Arabic. The researcher would like to point out in particular that the Arabic used here was the version spoken during the time of Muhammad, hence it is necessary to understand the historic-cultural background of the narrative. In addition the researcher would like to find out if there possible refinements which could be recommended for Diab’s work. Aside from it, the researcher will also cite these recommendations as possible future references with regard to translations of memoirs, specifically Arabic memoirs. Hypotheses and Research questions The research would like to resolve in this study the following hypotheses regarding the translation of â€Å"sensitive terms† in The Sealed Nectar. The researcher hypotheses that : there is consistency in the kind of norms and types of equivalence used while approaching referential meaning of sensitive terms either in the translation of religious texts or the book there is consistency in the kind of norms and types of equivalence used while approaching emotive meaning of sensitive terms either in the translation or the book. The researcher also hopes to answer specific questions in the course of this study. These are: what are the translation shifts adopted by the translator while tackling sensitive terms? to what extent do the kind of norms and type of equivalence represent consistency in approaching referential meaning. to what extent do the kind of norms and type of equivalence represent consistency in approaching emotive meaning. what are the most successful techniques and strategies used by the translator in conveying the meaning? what are the least successful techniques and strategies used by the translator in conveying the meaning? Approach As part of analyzing the â€Å"sensitive terms† used in the book The Sealed Nectar, this researcher intends to use the qualitative method of research. As generally known in academic and research circles, the qualitative method is used when the focus of the study intends to look at observing at particular characteristics of the sample subject which may be distinct from the general population. For this purpose, the researcher will both utilize three kinds of qualitative methods: book review analysis, documentary research and contrastive analysis. This researcher believes that it is necessary to use three kinds of methods because of the range of issues involved in the study and that each method have their particular loci. Initially the researcher will utilise the book review analysis to get a grasp of what they entire work contains, and to ascertain the particular context of the ‘sensitive terms† included in the book In this regard, this writer proposes to first utilise the book review analysis in studying the work The Sealed Nectar He will primarily use the linguistic perspective in dissecting the translation merits of this book because his focus would be on how Issam Diab translated â€Å"sensitive terms: from Arabic to English. In the context of this analysis, this writer proposes also to use a) the British National Corpus and b.) an authoritative Arabic dictionary to assist him in comparing the â€Å"sensitive terms† which are the foci of this research. Then the researcher will apply the documentary analysis method to compare the details from the book with details from other pertinent documents. These documents may include other Arab dictionaries, additional biographies on Mohammad, other Arab-language dictionaries and authoritative history books on Arabia. For the final part of the evaluation process, the researcher will apply the comparative analysis method wherein the findings from the two methods would be examined against each other. The researcher will then draw conclusions from this comparative study and then synthesise it with previous findings on translation to In the process of evaluating the translation, the researcher will cite previous theories and principles on translation, then use these as benchmarks in how successful was the English translation of Diab of Ar-Raheeq al-Makhtum in terms of transferring most of the original meaning from the original Arabic to English. In this aspect, this writer will primarily use the theories enunciated by Catford (141-147 in Venuti ed.) on translation shifts, Toury (198-211 in Venuti ed.) on translational norms, Baker on types of equivalence, and Nida (56-90) on referential meaning. But the researcher is open to using other kinds of research methodology if circumstances would warrant it. For example, the interview approach would be utilised if the researcher thinks there is a need to consult scholars on Arabic language, studies and literature. This is because the historical context of the narrative is key to understanding whatever â€Å"sensitive terms† which are enclosed in the work. Aside from that, it may be helpful if the researcher can get insights from these scholars regarding English translations of Arabic language works. This is because from their expert opinions, the researcher may further understand the change of nuances in translation, but not only from a purely technical aspect (translations shifts etc.), but also from the point of view of rhetoric and literary excellence. Tools For the purpose of this study, the research will use the following research tools in analyzing the Diab’s translation work: British National Corpus. an authoritative Arabic dictionary (preferably with references to Arabia during the time of Mohammad), two other biographies of Mohammad, and authoritative history books on Arabia. The reason behind citing these documents as tools in analyzing The Sealed Nectar is that the researcher wants to ensure that the needed details with regard to the study are utilized. The British National Corpus would serve as a guide on English words used in the book, to get the proper context of their usage. Then this will be complemented by the use of an Arabic language dictionary, to see how the original meaning and nuances of the SL based original version of the biography Then to put context into the analysis, the researcher will cite history books on Arabia to verify the authenticity of particular historical instances mentioned in the book. The res earcher thinks that a combined use of textual and historical analysis will help elucidate details on the accuracy of Diab’s translation. Scope While other interested researchers may find a whole range of translation issues in analyzing The Sealed Nectar, this writer intends to focus more on the accuracy of translating â€Å"sensitive terms† in the translation work. This is because these terms are loaded with religious meanings, which make these terms more challenging to translate as compared to other terms. In addition, the languages used have different nuances (Arabic as against modern English) which entails additional challenges in ensuring that the meanings of the terms do not get lost in translation. Tentative Outline of Paper : Within an allotted timeframe of a minimum of three years, this writer proposes an outline of the paper’s body: Chapter One: Linguistic analysis of sensitive terms in translation à   6 -12 months Chapter Two: Cultural, historical, and rhetorical aspects of the translation à   6-12 months Chapter Three: Evaluating the translation à   3-6 months Chapter Four: Summary, implications and recommendations à   3-6 months The writer intends to use the Sealed Nectar and the tools mentioned above in the first two years of the study. While he may formulate preliminary findings in the course of the study, the researcher intends to finalize them in the last year of the study through evaluation and formulation of summary findings and recommendations. The researcher takes note that accomplishing these aims may overlap depending on the availability of resources and the rate of research/analysis work. Books Nida, E, and Taber C. The Theory and Practice of Translation. Boston: Brill, 2003.pp. 56- 90 Chapters in Books Catford, J.C.. Translation Shifts.' The Translation Studies Reader. Ed. Lawrence Venuti. London: Routledge, 2000. 141-147 Toury, Gideon. Nature and Role of Norms in Translation.† (orig. 1978, rev. 1995) The Translation Studies Reader. Ed. Lawrence Venuti. London: Routledge, 2000. 198-211 Websites: Ar Raheeq Al Maktoom. University of Arkansas. July 28,2009 Translation Equivalence. Hoang. October 19 2008. July 28, 2009 . Elimam. University of Manchester. July 28, 2009 . Abdul Fattah. University of Manchester. July 28, 2009 Glossary. Summer Institute of Linguistics. July 28, 2009 . Aspects to Translating Literature Aspects to Translating Literature 1.) Introduction Translating texts requires skill, ability on the part of a translator in understanding the terms used in the source language (SL). As experts have pointed out, translation does not fully transfer the meaning of the terms from the SL toward the target language (TL) in which the texts are being translated. But in order to get closely as much as possible to the exact meaning of the term, translators follow a basic rule to put into mind the cultural nuances of the original term while finding their equivalent terms in another language (e.g. Arabic to English). In addition, because these terms have additional symbolic value as religious terms, translators must bear in mind of being careful in the translation. Toury (198 in Venuti ed.) himself highlights the role of translation in retaining the cultural nuances of the texts by saying that translators have a task â€Å"to fulfill a function allotted by a community to an activity, its practitioners and their products in a way deemed appropri ate to its terms of reference.† This researcher intends to ascertain the skill and success of Issam Diab in translating Ar Raheeq al Makhtoom, the memoirs of the Prophet Mohammad, from Arabic into English. Titled The Sealed Nectar, the memoirs records the life of Mohammad, while also discussing the socio-ecnomic background of Arabia during his lifetime. It was originally written by Saifur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri. 2.) Review of literature in brief Translation experts have pointed out various concerns in ensuring the translation of works from different languages. These range from defining when translations â€Å"formally† diverge from the literal meanings (Catford 141 in Venuti ed.) to ascertaining the equivalence of word meanings (Nida and Taber,) But all point to the problem of retaining the message of a text translated from SL to TL as much as possible. In addition translators have to consider the referential meanings of the words that they correspond so that they can define the exact meanings of the SL-based words that they are going to use. Culture aspects Studies such by Ahmed Elimam being conducted at the University of Manchester have tried to show the challenges in translating Arabic-language texts to English. Translators undertaking these projects faced the fact that there is a large diversity in terms of structural, grammatical, and semantic structure between the two languages. In addition they have to consider keeping as close as possible to the Arabic heritage the translated works. They also have to make sure that they words in Arabic which, by virtue of having deep cultural connotations, One can see this in the ongoing project to translate the Q’uran from Arabic to English as shown by Elimam. In this project, a team of translators tried to examine 10 translation of verses from the Q’uran and examine what are the grammatical and syntax changes were done in order to adjust in from the transfer of meaning from Arabic to English. Another continuing study made at the University of Manchester was of Ashraf Abdul Fattah was on comparing the changes of conjunction and passivisation in the translated works of Arab authors. This time the focus was on how changes in conjunction were made between the original and translated work made by the same authors. One can see here the attempt to verify if an author trying to translate his own works to another language can effectively transfer meaning given the differences in languages. 3). Issues in translation Translation studies have pointed out that there are terms in texts which must be carefully analyzed by a translator before proceeding in the translation proper. These terms are called â€Å"sensitive terms† which are defined as words considered central to the beliefs of the people owning the original texts. These may pertain to sacred teachings, quotations by the religions’ prophets or sages. Because of these, it is vital for translators to understand the religious beliefs, traditions and nuances behind the SL before undertaking any translation of religious texts. However, similar to translating works in other genres, translators have to deal with linguistic and cultural challenges before even being able to translate a work. According to Toury (199 in Venuti ed.), the main challenges faced by translators involve the systematic differences between languages (in terms of grammar, syntax, sentence structure), the variety in textual traditions contained in the texts to be translated, and also the â€Å"cognitive ability† of the translator to comprehend and transmit the meanings of the original texts from the original language to another language. In translating these terms, it is essential to consider first some important aspects in translation: translation shifts, kinds of norms types of equivalence, and emotive meaning. These factors determine how closely concise has a translator managed to express in the TL the meanings and terms originally expressed in the source language SL of a text . Translating texts involve changes in the use of grammar, contexts, and sentence structure, said Cartford (141 in Venuti ed.) in a seminal study on translation shifts. These translation changes are categorized as level shifts and categorical shifts. Level shifts occur in translation when the meaning of an SL item, at one linguistic level, changes meaning at another linguistic level of the TL. In particular, this kind of shift occurs when the translator attempts to translate the meanings at the phonological and graphological meanings but the result will be only a shift from grammar to lexis levels. Categorical shifts occur when there are variations in rank, structure, class, term in systems while a text is being translated from the SL to the TL. But Cartford (141 in Venuti ed.) qualifies this description by saying that there is a categorical shift when there is some form of formal correspondence between SL and TL. Structural shifts are the most common kind of categorical shifts and are noticeable in total translations, phonological and graphological translations Cartford (143 in Venuti ed.) added. Class shifts happen when the meaning of an SL item changes at a different translation level. Unit changes are observed when there is â€Å"a formal departure† in translation equivalent in one rank of the SL to another rank in the TL. Finally, intra-system shifts occur in cases where changes happen within the systems of both of SL and TL, where these systems still correspond to the languages’ â€Å"formal constitution.† However this must be qualified if the translation â€Å"involves selection of non-corresponding term in the TL system† Toury (199 in Venuti ed.) noted that translators are constrained by a wide range of â€Å"social regulations† which govern the behavior of a cultural community. This implied that there are particular cultural contexts which must be retained in the translation of terms from one language to another. At one pole of this continuum, are the absolute rules. These rules include local laws, ethics and traditions. At the other end are the idiosyncracies which pertain to the particular practices of individuals exhibited according to a particular situation. Located in between these far ends of the socio-cultural regulation scale are the norms which refer to the generally flexible set of rules governing particular situations in a context. These three kinds of social regulations influence translation because texts contain particular contexts which could only be explained through understanding these social regulations. Toury (200 in Venuti ed.) also pointed out that translation is a norm-governed activity because it also follows a set of rules pertaining to usage and transfer of meaning. This is flexible because each language has its particular meaning and context, hence the rules in terms of grammar and syntax may not be always be applicable. As he notes in his article, translation is being governed by norms depending on: Being a text in a certain language, and hence occupying a position, or filling a slot, in the appropriate culture, or a certain section thereof; Constituting a representation in that language/culture of another, preexisting text in some other language, belonging to some other culture and occupying a definite position. In translation, there are two large categories of norms which must be considered in planning and doing a translation of a work, namely: preliminary norms and operation norms. Preliminary norms pertain to the rules and policies governing the choice of text types to be translated and also the â€Å"tolerance† for translation (referring to the feasibility of translating terms which may have very specific cultural contexts not available in the language of the translator.), said Toury. Operational terms, he added, refer to the actual decisions made in the course of translations such as the distribution of textual material, verbal formulation and the like. Falling under operational norms are matricial (referring to the determination on the very existence of a textual material) and textual norms (which govern selection and usage of textual material to be translated.) Toury said that in general preliminary norms predominate over operational norms because the former lays down the structural basis in conducting a translation work (203). However despite this, the norms may still intersect, depending on the translation processes ensuing in a work. He also explained that multiplicity of norms still remain because each culture retains standards of regulating behavior even as they interact with other traditions. As a result translators have to face it and try to resolve them rather than just â€Å"ignore.† In Toury’s own words: â€Å" They only mean that real-life situations tend to be complex; and this complexity had better be noted rather than ignored, if one is to draw any justifiable conclusions. As already argued, the only viable way out seems to be to contextualize every phenomenon, every item, every text, every act, on the way to allotting the different norms themselves their appropriate position and valence† (205 in Venuti ed.) Another point of concern among linguist and translators is the equivalence of translating a meaning from the SL to the TL. Nida and Taber (200) defined equivalence as â€Å"very close similarity in meaning as opposed to similarity to form.† However, translation theorists have various concepts to explain and classify equivalence. Hoang pointed out in an online presentation that Nida and Taber had already gave out formal and dynamic equivalence in 1982 while Jakobensen theorized in 1959 equivalence can be achieved by a translator by using loan translations, neologisms, semantic shifts and circumlocutions. In 1992 Mona Baker came out with her own set of kinds of equivalences. These are â€Å"word level equivalence,† â€Å"equivalence above word level,† â€Å"grammatical equivalence† â€Å"textual â€Å"equivalence† and â€Å"pragmatic â€Å"equivalence.† Baker’s classification falls under the â€Å"formal’ equivalence category which focuses on how translators can use the forms of the texts in getting the closest meaning for an SL word, said Hoang. â€Å"Word level equivalence† refers to the attempt by a translator to find a corresponding meaning of one word from the SL to the TL. This effort entails a translator ensuring as much as possible that the counterpart word of the TL closely hews to the context of the original word from the SL. There are cases however when the texts between SL and TL do not correspond close enough to allow for the use of word level equivalence. In this case the translator must use the â€Å"equivalence above word level.† Here, the translator must find meanings which, while not be closely relate the corresponding TL word with the original SL word, must at least be related enough for the meanings to be still correlated. In the third strategy, the translator uses it when the correspondence between the two texts would only be found between the grammatical structures of the text. As a result, the translator has to analyse the grammatical correspondence between the texts of SL and TL, where despite the variety in the structural order of morpheme, syntax, and sentence orders, the same concepts or meaning can still be correlated between the two texts. However, there are instances when there is little correspondence in the verbal and grammatical structures of the SL and TL texts because there of a high diversity in the order of word and grammar structure. In light of this, the translator has to find correspondence in the overall textual structure of the SL and TL texts. He has to ascertain that the overall context in the SL text is still expressed in the TL version even though there are variations in grammar and syntax structures. If all these strategies still would not be able to correspond meaning between the SL and TL, then the translator has to use the pragmatic equivalence mode. Here, the translator uses the implied meanings of the SL text in order to at least express them in the TL . Another aspect in translating concepts from SL to TL is the use by translators of referential meanings. Nida (56) defines â€Å"referential meanings† as the use of â€Å"words as symbols to refer to objects, events, abstracts and relations.† The implication of this concept in translation is that translators have to consider the exact meanings of words based from OL in the translation of texts. (This is called denotation in grammar) This importance is highlighted by the fact that there is a diversity of meanings within those cultures and more so when translators try to get these exact meanings. One way to ensure this is to consult authoritative dictionaries of the SL concerned. One last aspect to consider in translation is the effect of emotive meanings to the translators. The Summer Institute of Linguistics online glossary defines â€Å"emotive meanings† as â€Å"affective meaning,† while terms related to it are â€Å"connotation/connotative meanings.† In sum, emotive meanings are definitions which have an association with a thing or concept even though these may not have direct conceptual relationship. The translators have to consider this while translating works from SL to TL because there are chances when the meanings that they try to correlate from SL to TL may just be a connotative meaning. Another way is to verify the specific contexts when these words are used. Aims The researcher aims to test, compare and synthesize the discussions above on various translation principles by conducting a review of â€Å"The Sealed Nectar (Ar Raheeq al Makhtum).† An English translation of the memoirs of the Prophet Muhammad was made by Issam Diab and was published in Saudi Arabia. With this translated memoir as the locus of the study, this researcher aims to fulfill the following aims: For the translation shift aspect, the researcher proposes to compare the source language (Arabic) and target language (English), identifying the translation shifts that happened in the book, and justifying the translator’s choice in making these translation shifts. As for the normative aspect, the researcher proposes to find out a.) if the translated version of the memoirs has consistency in the kind of norms and equivalence used even as it approached referential meaning. And b.) if the translated version has consistency in the kind of norms and equivalency while appr oaching emotive meaning. Finally, the researcher intends to contextualize the findings in the fact that many of the â€Å"sensitive terms† may be religious in nature This is study is made also with the aim of understanding the cultural and linguistic nuances distinguishable between English and Arabic. The researcher would like to point out in particular that the Arabic used here was the version spoken during the time of Muhammad, hence it is necessary to understand the historic-cultural background of the narrative. In addition the researcher would like to find out if there possible refinements which could be recommended for Diab’s work. Aside from it, the researcher will also cite these recommendations as possible future references with regard to translations of memoirs, specifically Arabic memoirs. Hypotheses and Research questions The research would like to resolve in this study the following hypotheses regarding the translation of â€Å"sensitive terms† in The Sealed Nectar. The researcher hypotheses that : there is consistency in the kind of norms and types of equivalence used while approaching referential meaning of sensitive terms either in the translation of religious texts or the book there is consistency in the kind of norms and types of equivalence used while approaching emotive meaning of sensitive terms either in the translation or the book. The researcher also hopes to answer specific questions in the course of this study. These are: what are the translation shifts adopted by the translator while tackling sensitive terms? to what extent do the kind of norms and type of equivalence represent consistency in approaching referential meaning. to what extent do the kind of norms and type of equivalence represent consistency in approaching emotive meaning. what are the most successful techniques and strategies used by the translator in conveying the meaning? what are the least successful techniques and strategies used by the translator in conveying the meaning? Approach As part of analyzing the â€Å"sensitive terms† used in the book The Sealed Nectar, this researcher intends to use the qualitative method of research. As generally known in academic and research circles, the qualitative method is used when the focus of the study intends to look at observing at particular characteristics of the sample subject which may be distinct from the general population. For this purpose, the researcher will both utilize three kinds of qualitative methods: book review analysis, documentary research and contrastive analysis. This researcher believes that it is necessary to use three kinds of methods because of the range of issues involved in the study and that each method have their particular loci. Initially the researcher will utilise the book review analysis to get a grasp of what they entire work contains, and to ascertain the particular context of the ‘sensitive terms† included in the book In this regard, this writer proposes to first utilise the book review analysis in studying the work The Sealed Nectar He will primarily use the linguistic perspective in dissecting the translation merits of this book because his focus would be on how Issam Diab translated â€Å"sensitive terms: from Arabic to English. In the context of this analysis, this writer proposes also to use a) the British National Corpus and b.) an authoritative Arabic dictionary to assist him in comparing the â€Å"sensitive terms† which are the foci of this research. Then the researcher will apply the documentary analysis method to compare the details from the book with details from other pertinent documents. These documents may include other Arab dictionaries, additional biographies on Mohammad, other Arab-language dictionaries and authoritative history books on Arabia. For the final part of the evaluation process, the researcher will apply the comparative analysis method wherein the findings from the two methods would be examined against each other. The researcher will then draw conclusions from this comparative study and then synthesise it with previous findings on translation to In the process of evaluating the translation, the researcher will cite previous theories and principles on translation, then use these as benchmarks in how successful was the English translation of Diab of Ar-Raheeq al-Makhtum in terms of transferring most of the original meaning from the original Arabic to English. In this aspect, this writer will primarily use the theories enunciated by Catford (141-147 in Venuti ed.) on translation shifts, Toury (198-211 in Venuti ed.) on translational norms, Baker on types of equivalence, and Nida (56-90) on referential meaning. But the researcher is open to using other kinds of research methodology if circumstances would warrant it. For example, the interview approach would be utilised if the researcher thinks there is a need to consult scholars on Arabic language, studies and literature. This is because the historical context of the narrative is key to understanding whatever â€Å"sensitive terms† which are enclosed in the work. Aside from that, it may be helpful if the researcher can get insights from these scholars regarding English translations of Arabic language works. This is because from their expert opinions, the researcher may further understand the change of nuances in translation, but not only from a purely technical aspect (translations shifts etc.), but also from the point of view of rhetoric and literary excellence. Tools For the purpose of this study, the research will use the following research tools in analyzing the Diab’s translation work: British National Corpus. an authoritative Arabic dictionary (preferably with references to Arabia during the time of Mohammad), two other biographies of Mohammad, and authoritative history books on Arabia. The reason behind citing these documents as tools in analyzing The Sealed Nectar is that the researcher wants to ensure that the needed details with regard to the study are utilized. The British National Corpus would serve as a guide on English words used in the book, to get the proper context of their usage. Then this will be complemented by the use of an Arabic language dictionary, to see how the original meaning and nuances of the SL based original version of the biography Then to put context into the analysis, the researcher will cite history books on Arabia to verify the authenticity of particular historical instances mentioned in the book. The res earcher thinks that a combined use of textual and historical analysis will help elucidate details on the accuracy of Diab’s translation. Scope While other interested researchers may find a whole range of translation issues in analyzing The Sealed Nectar, this writer intends to focus more on the accuracy of translating â€Å"sensitive terms† in the translation work. This is because these terms are loaded with religious meanings, which make these terms more challenging to translate as compared to other terms. In addition, the languages used have different nuances (Arabic as against modern English) which entails additional challenges in ensuring that the meanings of the terms do not get lost in translation. Tentative Outline of Paper : Within an allotted timeframe of a minimum of three years, this writer proposes an outline of the paper’s body: Chapter One: Linguistic analysis of sensitive terms in translation à   6 -12 months Chapter Two: Cultural, historical, and rhetorical aspects of the translation à   6-12 months Chapter Three: Evaluating the translation à   3-6 months Chapter Four: Summary, implications and recommendations à   3-6 months The writer intends to use the Sealed Nectar and the tools mentioned above in the first two years of the study. While he may formulate preliminary findings in the course of the study, the researcher intends to finalize them in the last year of the study through evaluation and formulation of summary findings and recommendations. The researcher takes note that accomplishing these aims may overlap depending on the availability of resources and the rate of research/analysis work. Books Nida, E, and Taber C. The Theory and Practice of Translation. Boston: Brill, 2003.pp. 56- 90 Chapters in Books Catford, J.C.. Translation Shifts.' The Translation Studies Reader. Ed. Lawrence Venuti. London: Routledge, 2000. 141-147 Toury, Gideon. Nature and Role of Norms in Translation.† (orig. 1978, rev. 1995) The Translation Studies Reader. Ed. Lawrence Venuti. London: Routledge, 2000. 198-211 Websites: Ar Raheeq Al Maktoom. University of Arkansas. July 28,2009 Translation Equivalence. Hoang. October 19 2008. July 28, 2009 . Elimam. University of Manchester. July 28, 2009 . Abdul Fattah. University of Manchester. July 28, 2009 Glossary. Summer Institute of Linguistics. July 28, 2009 .